Lycurgus the Spartan Lawgiver

Lycurgus was one of the most important and influential figures in the history of Greece. He effectively ruled Sparta for a while, but his most significant contribution was the introduction of a law code. These laws that he introduced fundamentally changed Spartan society and laid the foundation for it to become the fierce, militaristic power that it was later famous for being. However, there are many questions surrounding him. What did he do throughout his life? What exactly were his laws? Did he even really exist? This article examines these questions and others.

Who Was Lycurgus?

Lycurgus is the famous founder of Sparta’s militaristic society. He was a lawgiver and enacted profound reforms to the city-state. This had a major impact on the trajectory of Sparta’s history.

Lycurgus was a prince of Sparta. He was the brother of the king, and then after his brother died, Lycurgus became the guardian of his young nephew, the heir, and became the de facto ruler of Sparta. Later, he travelled to other countries and learned a variety of different ideas, philosophies, and concepts.

Eventually, the people of Sparta insisted that he come back and continue ruling over them. Lycurgus accepted, and using the things that he had learned while away, along with his natural ability as a leader, he introduced a series of major changes to Sparta. Despite the fact that Sparta itself had already long been established by this time, these major reforms have led to Lycurgus being considered a kind of founder of that city-state.

When Did Lycurgus Really Live?

One major question that surrounds Lycurgus is the issue of when he really lived. This is important to establish, since it sets the context for everything else about his life. Estimates for when he lived vary wildly, with some scholars arguing for a date as early as the tenth century BCE, and other scholars arguing for a date as late as the sixth century BCE. What is the reason for this wide range of estimates, and what does the evidence really indicate?

An Early Date 

The most traditional date for Lycurgus is the latter part of the ninth century BCE. This is viewed as likely for a number of reasons. For one thing, it was very early in the history of Sparta. Archaeology shows that Sparta was founded in about 950 BCE, so a date in the 800s would place Lycurgus very early in the city-state’s history, which some might view as particularly appropriate for a founding figure. 

However, there are some more specific chronological references from ancient sources which are used to support this idea. One of the clearest is a reference from Thucydides, a well-respected Greek historian of the fifth century BCE. Regarding Sparta (also called Lacedaemon), he wrote: 

“It had for the longest time good laws, and been also always free from tyrants; for it is unto the end of this war four hundred years and something more that the Lacedaemonians have used one and the same government.”

In other words, Sparta had enjoyed ‘good laws’ and ‘one and the same government’ for over 400 years by the time Thucydides was writing. Since Lycurgus was the one who established the laws and form of government of the Spartans, this would mean that Thucydides was essentially placing Lycurgus that far back. Since Thucydides was writing near the end of the fifth century BCE, that would therefore place Lycurgus near the end of the ninth century BCE. 

Additionally, Plutarch records that Aristotle considered Lycurgus to have been a contemporary of the First Olympiad, which started in 776 BCE. He even references certain intellectuals who believed that the Spartan lawmaker lived ‘a great many years before the First Olympiad’.

Problems with This Theory 

Despite the appeal of putting Lycurgus so far in the past, there are serious problems with this theory. Fortunately, Plutarch was generous enough to include the logic of those earlier writers. For example, he explained that Aristotle’s proof was a discus that was preserved at Olympia and had the name ‘Lycurgus’ written on it. 

Even if we accept that this really was an authentic discus from the first Olympic Games, and that the inscription was also authentic, this would not prove that Lycurgus the Spartan lawgiver lived that early. He was definitely not the only person to have that name. It was not even a particularly uncommon name. There were at least eight figures from Greek mythology who were called Lycurgus.

Regarding those who placed Lycurgus many years before the First Olympiad, Plutarch explained that they arrived at their conclusion by calculating ‘his period by the succession of the kings of Sparta’.

The problem is that we know for a fact that ancient Greek calculations based on succession lists were often severely exaggerated. We see this, for example, in the case of Ctesias’ record of Assyrian kings, where Ctesias appears to use an incredible average of 45 years per generation for his calculations.

As scholar Nikos Kokkinos explained, the ancient Greeks had a desire to exaggerate the antiquity of events in their history, and they often did so by using elongated generational lengths. Therefore, the calculations that placed Lycurgus before the First Olympiad are essentially valueless.

A Seventh Century Date

A much more plausible theory is that Lycurgus was a figure of the seventh century BCE. While much later than the traditional date, there is some strong evidence for this conclusion. This theory is primarily founded on who Lycurgus’ contemporaries are described as being. 

Evidence from Thales of Crete

One of Lycurgus’ most notable and consistent contemporaries in the surviving records was Thales, also called Thaletas, of Crete. A variety of Greek writers tell us that Thales went to Sparta after being invited to do so by Lycurgus. So the crucial issue is, when did Thales of Crete live? Fortunately, it is possible to place him quite definitively in the mid seventh century BCE.

The ancient writer Glaucus of Rhegium, writing in c. 400 BCE, stated that Thales of Crete lived later than Archilochus. Glaucus is considered to be the most authoritative and valuable source for Thales’ dates. Modern scholars almost universally agree that Archilochus lived from c. 680 to c. 645 BCE.

Since Thales, according to Glaucus, was younger than Archilochus, this places Thales’ career no earlier than the second half of the seventh century BCE. Other evidence precludes a date later than this, so it seems that Thales can be placed quite firmly in this era. 

If Thales of Crete was active in the second half of the seventh century BCE, and he was a contemporary of Lycurgus, then this likely places Lycurgus in that same timeframe.

Evidence from Homer

Other evidence comes from references to a connection between Lycurgus and Homer. According to Plutarch, some ancient authorities claimed that Lycurgus had actually met Homer himself. In Plutarch’s own account of Lycurgus’ life (our primary source of information about his activities), he is said to have discovered Homer’s epic poems.

This is not as useful as the information about Thales, since there is extensive disagreement over the dates of Homer too, just like with Lycurgus. Nonetheless, the best evidence places Homer in the seventh century BCE.

Scholar Hans van Wees wrote a two-part article in which he analysed in extensive detail the warfare described in Homer’s Iliad. On the basis of this analysis, he concluded that the style described in the Iliad precisely matches the historical reality of 700-650 BCE.

Furthermore, another analysis has shown that the earliest examples of Greek pottery which display scenes specifically from the Iliad date to no earlier than the last few decades of the seventh century BCE. This strongly indicates that Homer was not active long before that.

Therefore, if Homer was active mainly in the second half of the seventh century BCE, and yet Lycurgus either met him or at least knew his works, this clearly places Lycurgus in that same timeframe. Notably, this is exactly the same period as indicated by the evidence from Thales.

A Late Date 

A minority view is that Lycurgus lived even later still, in the sixth century BCE. The basis for this is that some of his supposed reforms would appear to be anachronistic before that century. For example, some laws attributed to Lycurgus are related to regulating the use of coins, such as controlling which types of metals were allowed to be used for minting them.

According to later records, Lycurgus forbade the use of gold and silver coins. Instead, iron coins were to be used.

The reason this is notable is that the first gold and silver coins apparently did not exist until the sixth century BCE, when they were developed by King Croesus of Lydia. Therefore, since Lycurgus made laws forbidding that type of coinage, this would mean that Lycurgus cannot have lived before that century.

Problems with This Theory

The obvious problem with this theory is that it relies on later records accurately preserving the laws that Lycurgus himself put in place. Interestingly, it is known that coins did start to be used by the Greeks in western Anatolia in the second half of the seventh century BCE. For example, some have been found at Ephesus from that era.

However, these coins were made of electrum. This is an alloy of gold and silver. Perhaps the later reference to Lycurgus forbidding coins of gold and silver is just a slightly distorted reference to these electrum coins. Although they were not used in mainland Greece in his own era, perhaps Lycurgus simply had the foresight to ban this new practice that the eastern Greeks had started to engage in. After all, Lycurgus was said to have travelled to that area before becoming the lawmaker of Sparta.

Alternatively, it may be that Lycurgus actually had nothing at all to do with this law. All of the claims about what laws Lycurgus established come from long after his time, and many scholars believe that Spartans tended to attribute newer laws to the famous lawgiver to give them more weight and authority.

Lycurgus’ Life 

Lycurgus’ life is not very well recorded, since all the records about him come from centuries after he existed. Therefore, there is not much that we can say for sure about him historically. Most discussions of him are based on Plutarch’s account of his life, but some of the information is contradicted by earlier sources. Here, we will try to presents the facts according to the available evidence.

Lycurgus’ Early Life

Most sources say that Lycurgus was the uncle of a Spartan prince called Charilaus. Lycurgus’ father was allegedly a Spartan king named Eunomus. He was a member of the Eurypontid dynasty, one of the two dynasties simultaneously ruling Sparta. Eunomus had two children by two different wives: Polydectes, the firstborn, and Lycurgus.

According to this traditional narrative, Polydectes died while he was relatively young. His brother Lycurgus succeeded him as king of Sparta. However, Polydectes’ wife was already pregnant by the time he died, meaning that Polydectes had an heir.

Upon learning of this, Lycurgus stepped down from the position of king and made himself the guardian of his nephew, the heir, reducing his own position to that of regent.

An Earlier Tradition

Although this is the more famous narrative, it is not the earliest one. As noted by the Encyclopedia Britannica, the earliest tradition makes Lycurgus a member of the other of the two Spartan dynasties. Rather than being from the Eurypontids, he was from the Agaids. Both dynasties, nevertheless, were allegedly descended from Heracles.

It was Herodotus who preserved the earliest surviving tradition about Lycurgus. He tells us that the famous lawgiver was the son of Agis I, the great-great-great-great-grandson of Heracles. This would place Lycurgus in the seventh generation after the legendary Heracles.

Furthermore, rather than being the guardian of Charilaus, Herodotus describes Lycurgus as the guardian and regent of a king named Leobotes.

Exactly why Lycurgus’ genealogy was changed (and greatly expanded, too) is unknown, but this was not uncommon in ancient Greek records about their dynasties and important figures.

Lycurgus Leaves Sparta

Although Lycurgus was, by all accounts, a respected and effective ruler, his position did not stay secure for long. According to Plutarch’s account, Charilaus’ mother had wanted to kill the baby and marry Lycurgus after the death of her husband the king. Lycurgus tricked her into keeping the baby and made a point of publically declaring the child to be the heir. 

For this reason, Charilaus’ mother felt betrayed and hated Lycurgus. Her friends also hated him, as well as certain others who thought it wrong that Lycurgus should have such power at so young an age.

For these reasons, rumours began circulating that Lycurgus was plotting to kill Charilaus and take the child for himself. The regent knew that if anything happened to the heir, even by accident, it would seem as if he was the one responsible.

Therefore, Lycurgus decided that the wisest thing to do would be to step down from his position as regent and leave Sparta entirely, at least until Charilaus had grown up and fathered his own heir.

Whether this actually happened or not is unclear. It may well be entirely fictional, since the placement of Lycurgus in the Eurypontid dynasty is almost certainly not historical. Notably, Herodotus’ wording in Histories 1.65.4 indicates that Lycurgus was still the guardian of the young heir while he was outside of Greece.

Visiting Crete

Lycurgus was said to have visited various places during this time outside of Sparta. However, by far the most famous and important location that he visited was Crete. This visit would go on to have a profound impact on the laws he later gave to the Spartans.

While on Crete, Lycurgus studied the laws of the land, examining how the government functioned and also making friends with prominent government officials. He loved some of the laws there, though he hated others. In any case, his experience in Crete gave him a lot of inspiration regarding what to imitate and what to avoid.

This is the narrative preserved in Plutarch’s account, but this same basic idea is referred to in earlier records. It is supported by Ephorus, a Greek historian of the fourth century BCE. Aristotle, also of that same century, likewise explained that the Spartan ones were adapted directly from the Cretan ones, those which had allegedly been established by the legendary King Minos.

In fact, this goes all the way back to Herodotus in the fifth century BCE, who wrote:

“The Lacedaemonians themselves say that Lycurgus brought it from Crete when he was guardian of his nephew Leobetes, the Spartan king.”

Although we obviously cannot know for sure if this tradition is accurate, the fact that it goes right back to the earliest source regarding Lycurgus is surely significant.

Sending Thales to Sparta

There is another important and fairly consistent tradition regarding Lycurgus’ activities on Crete. According to sources such as Aristotle and Plutarch, Lycurgus met a man named Thales on Crete. He was a wise statesman whom Lycurgus respected. For this reason, Lycurgus persuaded Thales to go to Sparta to improve the culture and laws of the city-state. 

To do so, Thales presented himself as a lyric poet rather than a politician. However, he used his musical talents to encourage obedience to the government and harmony between citizens. According to these traditions, Thales’ work was so successful that he was considered a forerunner of Lycurgus in transforming Sparta.

Visiting Ionia

After Crete, Plutarch’s account tells us that Lycurgus visited Ionia, part of the western coast of Anatolia, where the Greeks were extensively settling in his time. He wanted to compare the government and way of life in Crete with that of Ionia, since they were so completely at odds with each other.

The lifestyle in Ionia was extravagant and full of luxuries, whereas the lifestyle on Crete was simple and serious. This offered a good comparison for Lycurgus to see which produced better results, and why.

While there, Lycurgus is supposed to have discovered the works of Homer. They were in the possession of the family of a poet named Creophylus, a companion of Homer known from other traditions. 

According to Plutarch, Lycurgus was deeply impressed by the political and moral lessons found in the poems, so he wished to make them well known. Up until that point, they had a ‘faint reputation’ in Greece, but Lycurgus was the first to make them really famous.

Possible Other Countries

Plutarch tells us that the Egyptians also claimed that Lycurgus visited them. He claims that this is confirmed by ‘some Greek historians’, although he does not specify who.

In any case, this part of the account claims that Lycurgus was impressed by the way in which the Egyptians made a firm division between the military class and the ordinary citizens. This motivated Lycurgus to later go on to remove ‘mechanics and artisans from participation in the government.’

Plutarch goes on to tell us that one Greek writer, Aristocrates the son of Hipparchus, claimed that Lycurgus travelled as far as Libya, Iberia, and even India. However, Plutarch himself seems to doubt this, noting that no other source supports these claims. Aristocrates lived no earlier than the second century BCE (and possibly much later), so his claims can comfortably be rejected.

Return to Sparta

Eventually, Lycurgus returned to Sparta. However, he was not the one who took the initiative in this regard. In fact, he was invited back by the Spartans themselves. They missed him because they felt that he provided a level of stability to their state which the actual kings could not provide. 

Even the kings themselves did not object to Lycurgus returning. They agreed that he was an excellent statesman and lawgiver, and that Sparta would benefit by having his input. They felt that the citizens would behave better and respect the government more under the influence of Lycurgus. 

Visiting the Oracle of Delphi

The first thing that Lycurgus did when setting out to return was make a visit to the Oracle of Delphi in Greece. This was a famous, well-respected oracle who lived at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. There, Lycurgus sacrificed to Apollo and requested the blessing of the gods on his reforms.

The oracle told him that he had been heard favourably. Furthermore, the oracle was alleged to have addressed Lycurgus as ‘beloved of the gods, and more god than man’. According to Plutarch, these were famous words about Lycurgus.

With this response, Lycurgus supposedly had divine support for his endeavour to revolutionise Sparta.

Reforming Sparta 

In Plutarch’s legendary account of Lycurgus’ life, the lawgiver does not immediately jump into trying to reform the Spartan laws. In fact, for some reason, there is an air of secrecy around his actions. This suggests that it was not the populace in general which called for his return, but perhaps a specific group.

Plutarch relates that Lycurgus started off revealing his intentions to his close friends. He specifically drew close to the chief men of the city-state. He then gradually included more and more people in his plans. 

Once he felt that he had enough support, he sent thirty armed men into the market place to strike fear into the hearts of his opposers, a mysterious ‘opposite party’ mentioned by Plutarch. Who exactly this ‘opposite party’ was is unclear, but evidently they did not support Lycurgus.

Strangely, it seems that even King Charilaus himself was unaware of Lycurgus’ plans. According to Plutarch, Charilaus initially thought that this was a rebellion against his rule, so he sought refuge in a temple. It was only after some tense communication with Lycurgus’ supporters that he was convinced that he was safe. In fact, he subsequently joined them.

Did the Kings Know In Advance or Not?

This account is strange in view of Plutarch’s earlier statement that even the Spartan kings were fine with Lycurgus coming back to Sparta to reform their society. The earlier statement makes it sound as if they were aware of what was happening and were fully on board with Lycurgus coming back. Yet, this account makes it sound as if Lycurgus was working in secret, even from the monarchy.

One possible explanation is that Plutarch was attempting to harmonise several conflicting traditions, hence this apparent contradiction in the narrative. However, there is another possibility.

It may be that Plutarch’s reference to the attitude of the kings was placed out of chronological order. That is, he was explaining how the kings felt after Lycurgus had returned and started reforming the laws. In this case, Plutarch simply placed the statement before Lycurgus’ arrival because it fit the context of the Spartan people wanting him to return.

Lycurgus’ Death

Going by Plutarch’s account, there was apparently not a very long gap between Lycurgus firmly establishing his reforms in Sparta and his death. Once he saw that his reforms were in place and functioning well, he was very content and he desired to keep them going forever.

To accomplish this, he told the Spartans that he had to go to the Oracle of Delphi to consult with the god Apollo again. In the meantime, the Spartans were to be bound by oath to follow his laws until he returned. The Spartans agreed, and Lycurgus left.

At Delphi, he was allegedly informed by Apollo that his laws were good and that any nation which followed them would prosper. Lycurgus sent this testimony in a letter to Sparta. However, contrary to what he had originally suggested to them, he then stayed where he was. He did not return. Instead, he simply starved himself to death according to Plutarch’s account.

Lycurgus intentionally did this so that the Spartans would never be free of their vow to continue following his laws.

In reality, there are alternative traditions concerning what happened to Lycurgus, as Plutarch himself acknowledges. However, the most consistent alternative tradition appears to be that he retired to Crete and died there.

Lycurgus’ Reforms to the Laws of Sparta 

What, exactly, were the reforms that Lycurgus introduced to Sparta? What was so special about his laws? As we consider the laws attributed to him, bear in mind that there is very little evidence concerning which laws actually originate with the seventh-century lawgiver.

Allegiance to Sparta 

One of the key things that Lycurgus wanted to inculcate in the citizens of his city-state was utter allegiance to Sparta. After all, obedience and discipline were the qualities promoted by the music of Thales, whom Lycurgus had persuaded to go to Sparta even before his reforms.

Council of Elders

Another important reform was to regulate the power of the monarchy, which was often tempestuous. He organised a political body called the Gerousia. This was essentially a council of twenty-eight respected elders of Sparta, along with the two kings of the city.

Redistribution of Land 

A major economic reform was the redistribution of land. To combat excessive wealth and excessive poverty, Lycurgus reorganised the land into equal lots, so that there would be equality between citizens. Sparta itself was divided into 9000 lots, while the entire territory of Laconia was divided into 30,000.

Common Mess-Halls

To cultivate a feeling of unity and oneness among the citizens, Lycurgus created the arrangement known as syssitia. This required all men to meet together daily to eat their meals in common mess-halls, instead of eating privately in their own homes. They were also all expected to contribute food to the hall.

Reforms Concerning Warfare

Lycurgus was also concerned with ensuring that Sparta was a great military power. He created an arrangement whereby boys were taken from their families at seven years of age and put through a rigorous military education. He also instructed the Spartans to not continuously fight against the same enemy, so as to not allow the enemy to learn their tactics and adapt.

Physical Training for Women 

Due to the concern for creating a strong nation, Lycurgus also insisted upon women receiving physical training just like the men. He believed that this would help them to produce stronger offspring.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Lycurgus was an incredibly important figure in the early history of Sparta. He almost certainly lived mainly in the second half of the seventh century BCE, as a somewhat younger contemporary of Homer and Thales. He was likely the son of King Agis I of the Agaid dynasty. He started off as the guardian of young King Leobotes, but eventually he became the hugely influential lawgiver. His reforms to Sparta profoundly affected every aspect of its society, from economics, to politics, to warfare, to culture.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS 

When Did Lycurgus Live?

It is most likely that Lycurgus lived in the second half of the seventh century BCE, not the eighth or ninth century BCE as often stated.

Who Was Lycurgus’ Father? 

Lycurgus is commonly known as the son of King Eunomus of Sparta, but he was more probably the son of King Agis I.

Did Lycurgus Really Exist?

Some scholars in past decades argued that Lycurgus was a historicised version of the god Apollo, but this has been mostly abandoned. He is mentioned just two centuries after he supposedly existed, which is not a very long gap.

Sources: 

Matyszak, Philip, Sparta: Rise of a Warrior Nation, 2017

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lycurgus-Spartan-lawgiver

Oxford Classical Dictionary

https://www.worldhistory.org/Lycurgus/

https://www.thoughtco.com/lycurgus-lawgiver-of-sparta-112759