Background

• Druids in Ancient Europe

• Druidical Order

• Druidic Beliefs

• Druidic Magic

• Misconceptions about Druidism

Druids in Ancient Europe

Most of what we know about the ancient Celtic people in history comes from observances of classical Greek and Roman writers, as well as from archaeological evidence such as from the possessions of the dead in burial sites and from shrines found throughout central and western Europe, as well as from the British Isles.

See Who Were The Celts? in About Celtic Myths.

Historical writings about the Celts began in the 1st century BC, by the Greeks and the Romans. Although the Romans and the Greeks had encountered the Celts in wars centuries earlier, it was only in the 1st century BC that historians began to observe their cultures and customs.

The first important description about the Celts came from the writing of Posidonius (c. 135-51 BC), the Syrian Stoic philosopher, who described Celtic society. Posidonius may have provided an extensive description of the Celts, but none of his works survived except from references in other works, most particularly by Strabo, a Greek geographer of the 1st century AD. Strabo mentioned Posidonius as his main source about Celtic society.

Contemporary to Posidonius was the great Roman general and statesman, Julius Caesar (100-44 BC), who described the barbarians in his memoir, the Gallic Wars, during his campaigns in Gaul (France and Belgium) and southeast England. It seemed that Caesar's writing was probably influenced by Posidonius' description of the Celts, but Caesar did have first-hand encounters with the Celts, some of them serving him in his army as allies, such as the Aedui.

Both writers gave us descriptions of the priestly class known as the druids and druidesses.

Caesar wrote further that druidism probably originated in Britain, and druidism was later introduced into Gaul. Whether this statement is true or not, many modern scholars and historians have researched and speculated endlessly upon the origin of the druids.

To Caesar, the druids were a secretive but learned group who enjoyed special privileges among the Celtic population. They did not have to fight in wars and they were exempted from paying taxes. They acted as judges in disputes and they presided over those who committed criminal acts, as well as setting penalties. They could travel anywhere without hindrance from any tribes.

Though there were many benefits to becoming a druid, it was still not an easy life. It might take over 20 years to learn the philosophy, divination, poetry, healing, religious rites and magic required. And all of this without committing anything to writing. The druids, or any Gaul for that matter, were fully capable of writing down their knowledge, but chose not to do so because they preferred to rely on memories. For the druids, their pupils were required to exercise their minds.

The Gauls and the druids were not illiterate. Because of the trades between the Gauls and the Greek city of Massilia (modern Marseille) in southern France, the Gauls had earlier used Greek letters, mainly for trading purposes. The druids never used Greek writing to record their knowledge and customs, however. After the Roman conquest of Gaul and Britain, the Celts later adopted Roman letters for mainly commercial purposes. There are some Latin inscriptions found at sacred sites, such as in shrines and sanctuaries.

Caesar observed that the Gauls were very religious, and they always waited for the druids to perform the necessary rituals or sacrifices. The Celts didn't build any temples to their gods. The druids practised their worship in the open air, such as at sacred groves or near sacred lakes.

According to Caesar and other classical writers, the Gauls believed in souls being immortal, where a soul would pass on to another body after death. In another words, they believed in reincarnation or eschatology.

See Druidic Beliefs about Celtic religions and on eschatology.

Druidical Order

In ancient Gaul, the druidical order was divided into three groups: druidae, vates or uatis, and bardi. Likewise, Ireland had similar classes, and they were called druidh, filidh and baird. However, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish one group from another because the druids were required to learn all skills.

druidae or druidh

Classical authors described the ancient druids in Gaul and Britain as having many different duties. They were teachers, philosophers, physicians, priests, seers and sorceress.

They were generally responsible for teaching the noble class and their druid apprentices. With the noble class, they mediated any disputes. They had jurisdiction over disputes, as well as trying cases and setting penalties for criminal acts. They could travel anywhere without restrictions and receive hospitality from all households.

As a priest, the druid was responsible for performing sacrifices. Sometimes, the druids would perform human sacrifices. The druids were the priests who would communicate with the gods on behalf of the Celtic people.

As seers or soothsayers, they were known as vates, while the Irish called them filids. See the next section for more details.

In the Irish and Welsh texts, the druids were seen as teachers, healers, seers and wizards, but not as priests. Unlike the Gallic druids, they didn't pray to any god, nor did they ever perform sacrifices.

With the Irish myths, the druids were more like sorcerers than priests. The druids were not just confined to the Danann people. There were druids among the Partholonians, Nemedians and Milesians. Even the Fomorians had their own druids. Unlike the druids of historical Gaul and Britain, there were no rules against writing.

In Welsh myths, a druid was called dyn hysbys, which means wizard.

vates or filidh

The Gaullish vates or uatis and the Irish filidh were the seers and soothsayers, gifted in divination.

Both Caesar and the orator Cicero (106-43 BC) wrote of meeting a druid named Divitiacus, an Aeduan, whom they highly respected. Divitiacus was known for divination by means of augury.

According to classical writers, these druids would butcher a man to foretell the future. How they bled and observing the convulsions of their victim's limbs could tell them about the future, or at least read or interpret omens. Modern scholars are dubious about some of the accounts of classical writers on ritual sacrifices, as these writers were probably politically motivated to record such events as a means of propaganda, to stamp out the druids.

Predictions of the future in Irish and Welsh myths are too numerous to tell here. Among the famous predictions were Cathbad foretelling the tragedy that would befall Ulster because of  Deirdre, or Fedelm foretelling that the defeat of Medb's army would be the result of a single hero, Cu Chulainn.

There are many prophecies in the Black Book of Carmarthen, in poems attributed to Myrddin, the antecedent to Merlin. Most of these prophecies concerned the fate of Britain.

Since it is sometimes hard to distinguish seers from druids, you will find the legendary seers in the Druids section. More about divination can be found in the Druidic Magic article.

bardi or baird

The bardi or baird were the poets and singers. They seemed to be the lowest order of the enlightened ones, yet in Irish and Welsh myths they could sometimes play even more important roles than a king or a warrior. They were often known for their wisdom as well as for their poetry.

Historically, Irish and Welsh poetry mainly survived in oral traditions, not in writing. However, the oral tradition was quite well developed before writing was used. By the time these poems were finally written down, they might have been influenced by Christianity.

Whether in Gaul, Wales or Ireland, the bards commanded almost as great a respect as the druids. In some cases, the bards played a prominent role in Irish or Welsh narratives. Amairgin, son of Míl, was able to counter any sorcery from the Danann druids. Taliesin used his poetry to spellbind the court of Maelgwn Gwynedd.

Taliesin was a shadowy figure because he was said to have been a historical person, and he is mainly known for poems attributed to him, but the legends about him were far more substantial than any historical account we have of him. The 9th century historian Nennius listed him as one of five early great poets, known as cynfeirdd, who were said to have lived in the 6th century. The other poets were Aneirin, Talhaiarn Cataguen, Bluchbard and Cian (Guenith Guaut). No works survived from the last three poets.

You will find a list of bards who appeared in Celtic myths on the Bards page.

Druidic Beliefs

The druids were responsible for the religious teaching and practices of the Celts. They preserved the knowledge of the gods and were responsible for the sacrifices of animals, and sometimes of human sacrifices.

The Gaullish druid was a mediator between the mortals and the gods; they stood between worlds, and in the case of Irish and Welsh myths, between the otherworld and the mortal plane. The druids derived part of their magic powers and their divinations from the Otherworld.

Celtic Deities

There were no temples built for the Celtic gods in the pre-Roman conquest. Shrines and sanctuaries were found outdoors at sacred groves or near sacred lakes. Sacrifices, human and animal, took places at these sacred sites. Icons made of either of wood or stone were stored in the shrines, along with sacred, precious artefacts. Hauls of silver and gold were deposited into the holy lakes and rivers.

According to the Roman historian Tactius, one of the centres of the druids was at the sacred grove on the island of Anglesey. In AD 61, because of human sacrifices that took place, the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus took action to eradicate the bloody practices; the druids were massacred and the groves were destroyed.

Julius Caesar could only observe the deities of Gaul, and designate Roman names for the Celtic gods where they were familiar to the Roman pantheon. The Gallic Mercury was the most important god. Other important deities were Mars, Apollo, Jupiter, and Minerva.

It was only when Gaul and Britain had become provinces that the Celts finally had temples built, and the Celtic deities received Romano-Celtic names. Despite these names, all of the inscriptions on these Gallic and British deities were written in Latin, since neither the Gauls nor the Britons had their own writing systems. The Romans were renowned for adopting new gods and religions. Some of the Romans who lived abroad, adopted these Gallic deities. Only the horse goddess Epona was worshipped in Rome itself. See Gallic Deities and British Deities.

If we wish to know about the Celtic deities, we must investigate them from ancient Celts and not from writings preserved in medieval manuscripts. Though the Irish and Welsh people found in literature were thought to be gods originally, they were not worshipped, but they did have special powers that kept them young.

The only source in the Irish literature that indicates that the Irish were worshipping a god, in the usual sense, came during the reign of the high king named Tigernmas. Tigernmas was said to have introduced the worship of Crom Cruach. Human sacrifices were performed before the stone idol of Crom Cruach.

Some ancient Gallic deities such Belenus, Danu, Lugus, Ogmios and Epona survived the early spread of Christianity to be transmuted into Bel, Ana, Lug or Lugh, Ogma, and Macha – the Irish deities of the Tuatha De Danann. However, they were not "gods" in the usual sense of the word, but have been watered down as fairies by Christian authors. See the Tuatha Dé Danann (Irish Deities).

The Welsh transmuted Belenus/Bel into Beli, Danu/Ana into Don, Lugus/Lug into Lleu, and Epona/Macha into Rhiannon. The British god Nodons was transmuted into the Welsh Nudd, who was sometimes equated with Nuada Airgetlám. See Welsh Deities.

Ignoring the Irish and Welsh literature and concentrating on ancient Gaul and Britannia during the Roman empire, you would find that there was no Celtic pantheon comparable to the Greek and Roman Olympians or the Norse Aesir. There were hundreds of Celtic gods and goddesses, some of which were more popular in Continental Europe and the British Isles (such as Lugus, Belenus, Epona, Matres, etc), while others were only worshipped in a certain region or by a certain tribe (such as Vosegus, Nehalennia, Sequana, etc).

See the Gallic Deities and British Deities for individual articles about ancient Celtic gods and goddesses.

Celtic Cosmology

There is no ancient record about Celtic Creation, and it's not certain that there ever was any. Though Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) did write that all the Gauls were originally descendants from Dis Pater (Pluto), the Roman god of the Underworld and god of the dead, that claim can't be verified.

Neither the Irish nor Welsh literature explained anything about the creation of the world and mankind. The Lebor Galaba (Book of Invasions) was the Irish pseudo-historical account of successive people settling in Ireland until the arrival of the Gaelic-speaking people known as the Milesians. According to this account, the Partholonians, Nemedians and Milesian were descendants of the Biblical Noah. The Partholonians and Nemedians came from Japheth's line. The Firbolgs and Tuatha Dé Danann were descendants of the Nemedians, so they were ancestors also came from the time of Noah.

See Book of Invasions for the pseudo-history of the settlement of Ireland. You will also find the genealogy of the Nemedians, Firbolgs and Danann in the Children of Danu and the Milesians.

What it does indicate is that the so-called Irish people had come from other kingdoms, or in the case of the Tuatha Dé Danann, from the Otherworld.

Eschatology

What did the Celtic people believe about the afterlife?

What is evident among the ancient Celtic customs regarding the dead is that the more prominent members of the community were buried with their earthly possessions, such as their cauldrons, jugs, ornaments, jewellery, and weapons. Sometimes a whole chariot was buried with them. Even their favourite animals such as a horse or hound were buried with them.

Some of these burials indicate that they were nobles or chieftains; even possibly druids. There were even a few burials that were actually tombs for women. These women were probably druidesses or women chieftains. Like many other different cultures, they believed that the dead might need these possessions in the transition to their afterlife.

According to the ancient classical writers, they believed that the Celts were followers of the Pythagorean philosophy. The Greek philosopher Pythagoras (c. 580 - c. 500 BC) from the island of Samos taught that the human soul was immortal and instead of the shades going to the Underworld, they would find another body to enter. Transmigration of the soul (reincarnation), known as eschatology, was also a belief of Hinduism, as well as a number of other cults, such as the Orphic Mysteries.

Though the Celts may believed in souls passing from one body to another, claiming that the druids were followers of Pythagoras is probably an overstatement or exaggeration of their beliefs and knowledge. I very much doubt that the druids knew anything about Pythagoras' philosophy.

It was this belief about the soul which made the Celtic warriors fearless in battles. Since they believed that their souls would always find new bodies, they didn't fear danger or death. They were known to have thrown themselves at Roman swords with reckless abandon.

It is not certain if the Irish or the Welsh believed in eschatology or not, but there are a couple of indications that they believed reincarnation was possible.

A number of Danann were listed in the Lebor Gabala, having died either during or after the Second Battle of Mag Tuired and before the Milesian invasion, particularly Dagda, Lugh and Macha, but in other tales they are alive and living in the sidhe (otherworld). This does sort of suggest reincarnation, or even deification.

In the Irish romance Tochmarc Étaín (Wooing of Etain), Etain was transformed into a butterfly by her husband's jealous first wife. A thousand years later, a queen accidentally swallowed the butterfly, then became pregnant, and Etain was reborn. See Etain in the Ulster Cycle.

A similar metamorphosis and reincarnation like that of Etain occurred in the Lebor Gabala, with Tuan mac Cairill as the reincarnation of Tuan, son of Starn and brother of Partholon. This earlier Tuan was the sole survivor of the Partholonians who were wiped out by the plague. Tuan survived for many generations in various animal forms, such as a stag, a boar and a eagle. During his life in these forms he witnessed successive invaders in Ireland. That was until one day, when he was caught in the shape of a salmon, he was eaten by the wife of Cairill, and Tuan was reborn in human form as Tuan mac Cairill. It was this reborn Tuan who was said to have written about the early history of Ireland.

Similarly, in the Welsh tale (Mabinogion), Gwyon Bach changed into various animal forms to escape the goddess Ceridwen. When he changed himself into a grain, Ceridwen turned into a hen and swallow the grain (Gwyon Bach) and the goddess became pregnant. Gwyon Bach was reborn as the famous bard, Taliesin. See Taliesin in the Mabinogion.

Human Sacrifices

Roman and Greek historians have recorded that the druids were responsible for the sacrifices of animals, as well as more grisly ritual human sacrifices. Most classical accounts said that the Gauls didn't perform any sacrifices, large or small, without a druid doing the rite.

These sacrifices were performed to appease the gods, for people suffering from famine or disease. Another purpose for the sacrifice is when a tribe was engaged in a war.

Caesar reported unusual sacrifices where men were confined in large wickerwork images of men, filled with twigs, before they were set on fire. Lucan wrote that these human sacrifices were frequently performed for the Gallic gods Esus, Taranis and Teutates.

Other writers reported different types of human sacrifices for divinatory purposes. Diodorus Siculus (late 1st century BC) wrote that the victim was stabbed above the midriff. The druids were able to foretell the future by the way the blood flowed and by the convulsions of the limbs. See Druidic Magic, Divination.

Usually the sacrificial victims were criminals or slaves, but the druids would sacrifice the innocent, if there was a shortage of criminals.

Human sacrifices were rare in Irish mythology. During the reign of Tigernmas, this high king introduced the worship of Crom Cruach, where people were sacrificed before the stone idol of Crom Cruach.

In the Irish Echtrae Airt meic Cuinn (or the "Adventure of Art Son of Conn"), the druids advised Conn Cétchathach, the high king of Ireland, to find and sacrifice a boy from sinless parents, named Ségda Sáerlabraid. However, this was not a sacrifice to the gods; the boy was to be slain before Tara, and his blood was to mix with the soil. Rígru, the boy's mother, saved her son and warned Conn that it was his second wife, Bé Chuma, who had caused the land not to have any corn or milk. Bé Chuma had been exiled from the Otherworld for her transgression, and for unjustly banishing Art from Ireland.

Modern scholars and historians expressed doubts about human sacrifices, because there is so little evidence, and we only have classical authors as witnesses. Some believed that these ancient historians were either exaggerating or they were using these stories as propaganda to suppress druidism. Human sacrifices might have taken place, but it was probably not a daily ritual or occurrence, unless there was a real need such as in wars or famine.

There are great difficulties in distinguishing killing in war and murder from ritual killing such as sacrifice. Perhaps the best evidence of human sacrifice comes from the body recovered from the peat bog in Lindow Moss, at Cheshire. This body was called Lindow Man. The bog had kept the flesh well-preserved, and the body showed evidence that his throat had been cut. Not only that, he was also bludgeoned, strangled and drowned. Some German tribes also sacrificed humans in the same manner, such as cutting their throat, stabbing, strangling or hanging, or drowning.

In a way, decapitation was a form of sacrifice, and the Roman writers often remarked about the Celtic custom of severing the heads of their enemies, as if a warrior would gain their defeated enemy's power. The Gaullish warriors fought with reckless bravado, with their slashing swords. They took heads as trophies, as well as a means of gaining the mystical power of the severed heads.

Decapitation is also found very frequently in Irish literature, more than in the Welsh texts. In the Irish tale called Fled Bricrenn (Briccriu's Feast), a warrior (Cu Roi) allowed his head to be severed from the three Ulster's champions, in return that he was allowed to take the champion's head on the next day. When this mystical warrior's head was severed, his body picked up his head and walked away, returning the next day. Only Cu Chulainn was brave enough to put his head on the chopping block, but the warrior didn't harm Cu Chulainn. Obviously magic was involved.

However, the most amazing incident happened in the second branch of the Welsh Mabinogion (Branwen Daughter of Llyr), where the head of Bran the Blessed, or Bendigeidfran, continued to talk to the seven survivors of the war against Ireland. Bran's head made the survivors forget the loss of their king and army.

In some graves, there were heads severed from elderly women. What was interesting was that the head was placed either between the corpse's legs or at her feet. Also the lower jaw was removed from the skull. The women were probably executed because of sorcery or witchcraft. There is speculation that the lower jaw was removed so that the dead woman couldn't speak or incant a spell. Another theory suggested that it was to send the woman quickly to the Underworld.

Druidic Magic

There is very little evidence of the kind of magic from the ancient druids in Gaul that appeared frequently in Irish and Welsh literature. The classical authors believed that druids practised magic and witchcraft, but were very vague as to what sort of magic. What is clear is that the ancient druids took special interest in healing and divination.

Like a shaman or medicine man, the druids made charms and talisman to ward off evil spirits.

As physicians and healers, the druids gathered herbs and made poultices. They gathered plants known as selago, without using iron. Another special plant was the marsh plant known as the samolus, used as a charm against cattle diseases.

Pliny the Elder (AD 29-79), philosopher and natural scientist, wrote that druids held the mistletoe and oak trees (genus Quercus) as sacred. Mistletoe was rarely found on oak trees. The druids would cultivate mistletoe with great ceremony on the sixth day of the moon. They always used a golden sickle to carefully cut the mistletoe, and gathered it in a white cloak. It was said that mistletoe contained special properties that would cure all illness and diseases. It was said to be the antidote to all poison, and could impart fecundity to barren cattle.

However, in the medieval Irish literature, it was ash trees, often called rowan and quicken trees (genus Sorbus aucuparia), and the yew trees (genus Taxus) that were sacred. They contained magical properties. Also sacred were the apple trees (genus Pyrus malus) and the hazel (genus Corylus).

In Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (The Pursuit of Diarmait and Gráinne), the giant Searbhan (Sharvan) guarded rowan-berries on the Quicken Trees, in the forest of Dubros. The magic berry could restore an old man of 100 to the youth of a 30 year-old.

The Welsh legend seemed to favour the apple trees. In the poem attributed to Myrddin, the antecedent of Merlin, he hid up in an apple tree when the men of Rhydderch were looking for him. He was hidden by the magic grove.

Though druids could heal using some sort of magic or just using herbs, it was mainly the work of physicians. The most famous physician was the Danann Dian Cécht and his children. Dian Cécht blessed the spring which healed the Danann warriors during the Second Battle of Mag Tuired. His son Miach restored Nuada's arm.

Magic is more explicit in Irish and Welsh literature. Some druids used wands, especially when transforming another person into an animal, plant or rock. See the next section on Metamorphoses.

A sorceress or witch was called bantuathaig. Be Chuille and her sister Dianann were the sorceresses of the Tuatha Dé Danann. They used their magic to conjure up a host of warriors from the grass and leaves, during the war against the Fomorians.

In Irish and Welsh legends, prophecies and divination were frequent in the literature.

Metamorphoses

In ancient Gaul and Britain there are many artefacts showing strange creatures. One wonders if they are gods or humans transforming into some sort of creatures through shift-changing or metamorphosis? Gods transformed into creatures, trees or rocks are abundant in Greek and Roman literature, but no such records are kept by the ancient Celts.

However, there are abundant examples of such transformation in later literature found in Ireland, Wales and Brittany.

The people of the Tuatha Dé Danann could change through their own abilities or power.

In Hanes Taliesin (Mabinogion), Gwyon Bach (or Gwion Bach) gained such power after tasting the brew from Ceridwen's magic cauldron. He used his power to escape Ceridwen, by transforming himself successively into a hare, a salmon, a bird and lastly a grain of wheat.

There are other cases where they needed special means to make such a transformation, such as potions or wands, particularly when used against another person.

Wands were frequently used in Irish and Welsh myths. Wands were used in much the same way in the Greek myths, where Circe turned 12 men of Odysseus into swine.

Aiofe, stepmother and aunt of the children of Lir, used a wand to turn her stepchildren into swans. The Danann druidess Fuamnach, jealous first wife of Midir, used a hazel wand to turn Etain into a butterfly. Similarly, the Dark Druid turned Sadb, wife of Finn Mac Cumhaill and mother of Oisín, into a doe.

In Math Son of Mathonwy, the third branch of the Mabinogion, each year Math turned his nephews, Gwydyon and Gilvaethwy, first into a stag and hind, then wild sow and boar, and then into a wolf and she-wolf. After three years of punishment, he turned his nephews back into their former human forms.

It was not just transformation of humans to animals or plants. Anyone could transform themselves to look young or old, beautiful or ugly. Goddesses frequently had three aspects, appearing as a young maiden, mother and old crone.

In the Arthurian legends, Merlin certainly had this ability to look either as an old man or a boy, merchant or beggar. One of his more famous metamorphoses occurred when Merlin transformed Uther, king of the Britons, to look like Igraine's husband Gorlois, duke of Cornwall, which caused the conception of Arthur. Morgan le Fay at one time changed herself and her followers into rocks to hide from her brother, after her treachery. Morgan could also appear as a beautiful maiden or an ugly hag.

Divination

Divination is a way of foretelling the future or understanding the hidden significance of events. There are different forms of divination such as astrology, augury, listening to animals, dreams, or visions. According to the classical authors, the druids were renowned in this sphere of arcane practice.

Some of the skills were not so much innate abilities but proper interpretation of the signs, such as in astrology or the flight of birds (auspices).

Some kinds of divination, such as haruspicy, required cutting open the belly of an animal and observing their entrails, similar to the rites performed by the Etruscan priests, which the Romans adopted.

The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (fl. late 1st century BC), reported a druid sacrificing a victim by stabbing him in the midriff. The druid could determine future events by the means of observing how blood flowed from the wound and the convulsions of the victim's limbs. The geographer Strabo similarly reported a druid striking a person's back with a sword, and observing their convulsive death throes. Strabo listed other means of human sacrifice, such as shooting the victim with arrows, crucifying and burning. Other sacrifices, human or animal, were not only used for divination, but also as a means of appeasing the gods. See Human Sacrifices in Druidic Beliefs.

In Táin Bó Cuailnge, Queen Medb encountered the seeress Fedelm. Fedelm had the imbas forasnai, or the "Light of Foresight". The imbas forasnai was was not limited to seers; poets of the highest rank could also have this prophetic gift. Scáthach, the woman warrior and teacher of Cu Chulainn, was also known to have this gift.

There are other forms of divination. One of them, called teinm laída, involved chewing and chanting. The Fenian hero Finn Mac Cumhall had the strange ability where he could gain knowledge or foresight just by sticking his thumb in his mouth and chewing it.

The third form, called díchetal do chennaib, required incantation. Divination probably required contact or close proximity with a person or object.

Part of divination came from interpretation of events. An example of this was when Conchobar Mac Nessa and his retinue heard the unborn child screaming from the womb of the wife of Fedlimid Mac Daill. Conchobar's druid Cathbad interpreted that the omen would be ill for all Ulster, if any king was to marry her (meaning Conchobar). This unborn child was Deirdre. Conchobar not heedful of Cathbad's warning, decided to marry the girl when he heard that she would be beautiful beyond compare.

In Welsh legends, divination was known as awenyddion or awenithion, which was a power of poetic insight. The insight or divination came from sleeping and dreams, where the sleeping person would speak during a rapt ecstasy.

In the legend of Taliesin, Gwyon Bach gained the ability of inspiration (poetry), wisdom, magic and divination, when he accidentally tasted three drops from Cauldron of Inspiration. Gwyon was reborn from Ceridwen's womb as the bard Taliesin.

According to the Welsh and Arthurian legends, Myrddin or Merlin was the most prominent seer or prophet. Merlin not only could see into the future, but his wisdom enabled him to understand any significance or symbolism that happened in the past or present. With the Welsh Myrddin, he gained his ability when he became mad during the Battle of Arfderydd and lived in the Caledonian forest as the Wild Man of the Woods. Geoffrey of Monmouth told a similar story in Vita Merlini.

Merlin's power in prophecy in the Vita Merlini was derived from several sources. Perhaps most essential to his prophetic power was his madness. Also, he could look at a person and see that person's fate. Living for years in the forest, Merlin also had the ability to talk to the animals. The last method of looking into the future was through astrology. Merlin's sister Ganieda had built a large house in the woods with seventy doors and seventy windows, so Merlin could have an unobstructed view of the heavens.

But in Geoffrey's earlier work, Historia regum Britanniae (c. 1137), Merlin was born with the ability because he was the son of a devil or incubus. Instead becoming a force for evil, Merlin's mother immediately had her baby baptised. Merlin retained knowledge of the past and the future, because he actually became a servant of God.

Misconceptions about Druidism

One of the problems when dealing with the ancient Celtic people, particularly with druids, is that we don't know how much truth is found in ancient and medieval writings. A lot of theories about the druids and druidism have been proposed over the last four centuries, and lot of it is either wrong, gross exaggeration or misleading. None of the theories in the past and present have any more proof, and our inquiries often leave more questions to be asked. Even some of the things that I write about druids are probably wrong.

Most of what I have written so far about the druids and druidism (ie. origin, religion, magic, etc), comes from either ancient or medieval sources. They come from classical Greek or Roman authors, or from medieval Irish and Welsh literature. The writings of the Irish and Welsh authors give us a different light to what was written by the ancient Classical authors, but their works often hindered our understanding of druidism.

We are in debt to the age of Romanticism and the Celtic revivalists (from 17th century to the early 20th century) for keeping alive Celtic mythology, either by preserving the old writings or transmitting them into English or other languages. Yet at the same time, we can also blame them for giving us a distorted interpretation of what the druids and Celtic people actually did in the past. The modern druidic movements still accept some of their concepts and speculations.

Some of their theories and speculation are as fantastic as the medieval literature, and are either wrong or an exaggeration. These Celtic experts perpetrated their own myths, especially on the origin of druidism. Many bogus writings and scholarship were penned from the 17th century to the 19th century. Among those who penned them were John Aubrey (1626-1697), William Stukeley (1687-1765), Godfrey Higgins and Iolo Morganwg, an alias of Edward Williams (1747-1826). Iolo Morganwg was largely responsible for the invention of the modern druidic movement, or neo-druidism.

More on Druidic Origins

I have already said in the article Druids in Ancient Europe that Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) mentioned that the place of the possible origin of druidism was in Britain. Some have argued over the centuries in favour and against this statement. Caesar was only stating the possibility, because he didn't know for a fact about druidic origins.

The Greek city in southern France, Massilia (modern Marseille), traded with the Celts in the 6th century BC. The Romans knew about the existence of Celts or the Gauls, as they called them, when several Gallic tribes crossed over the Alps, settling in northern Italy and exerting pressure upon the Etruscan city-states during second half of the 5th century BC. The Roman had their own encounter with the Gauls when they were defeated at the Battle of Allia, in 391 BC. In the following year, the Gauls sacked Rome before leaving. The Romans also fought the Gauls before (in the battle of Telamon, in Eturia, 225 BC, and during the Second Punic War against the Carthaginians, in third-quarter of the 3rd century BC. In none of these cases was there any mention about the druids.

Some Celtic experts believed that this is proof that the druids didn't exist among all Celtic people, such as those living in Gaul, Central Europe and in Galatea (in Asia Minor), so the druids must have come from Britain. There are even some who believed that the druids were not at all of Celtic origin. Some of the Celtic scholars believed that the druids were originally pre-Celtic people living in Brittany, Britain and Ireland.

Arguing against that, it should be pointed out that neither the Romans nor the Greeks had time to observe the customs of the Gauls, and one could not possibly distinguish a druid when faced against the charge of fearless, sword-waving, (happy) head-hunting Gaulish warriors. Druids probably existed in Gaul in 390 BC and even before this time, even though no one had seen one.

There are some who believed that the druids lived during the megalith period. One of the persistent, erroneous concepts about the druids is that they were the megalithic builders of burial mounds or chambers, the standing stones and stone circles found throughout Europe, like Stonehenge. See People of the Stone.

There are many large burial mounds that can be found throughout central and western Europe. What is interesting is that there are spiral carvings upon stones that are similar in design to that we normally associate with Celtic work. But these meglithic carvings are actually pre-Celtic, originating during the Neolithic period. These spiral carvings are often associated with the belief that it helped the passage of the soul to the Underworld. Yet these megalithic carvings of spirals are not confined to the British Isles and France. What can be found in Newgrange in Ireland or Gavrinis in France, can also be found in Spain, Sicily and Malta.

I am very skeptical about these claims, particularly those suggesting that druidism was of pre-Celtic origin. Even more preposterous was when John Aubrey (1626-1697) claimed in his writing that the druids originally came from India into Britain, as well as linking their customs with the American Indians.

People of the Stone

I have already mentioned that some Celtic revivalists and romanticists (since the 16th century) and modern-day druids believed that the ancient druids were of not of Celtic origin at all. They believed that the druids were pre-historic indigenous people who had always lived on the British Isles and in Armorica (another name for Brittany, in France). When the Celts came to these regions, the Celtic people adopted the religious customs and rites of the druids.

Part of the reason, is that they like to believe that it was the druids who erected the standing stones and the stone circles, particularly Stonehenge in southeast England.

Either this theory is true or wrong. The problem is that we can't prove this theory.

This megalithic culture used huge stones, usually unadorned, in which they sometimes erected the individual stones in an upright position from the ground. There were other styles, where one large stone was laid horizontally over two or more standing stones.

These stones can sometimes be found grouped together in some sort of pattern. There are a couple of different arrangements, such as in concentric circles like Stonehenge. An even larger circle could be found not too far away from Stonehenge, at a place called Avebury, in Whitshire, England. Avebury is about 30 kilometres north of Stonehenge and the circle there occupies 28 acres.

Another pattern is the parallel alignment of stones, such as those found in Carnac, near the village of Auray, in Brittany.

There are thousands of individual standing stones all over Brittany and Britain. In Brittany, they are called menhirs. The Bretons and the Irish also called them dolmens. In Wales and Cornwall, these stones are called cromlechs.

They were erected during the Neolithic period and during the early Bronze Age. Before I continue any further, it must be understood that the Bronze Age occurred later in Britain than the eastern part of Europe (like in Crete and Greece) and in the Middle East. These stones were constructed from 4000 BC, to the early Bronze Age in 1100 BC.

All of these stones were built before the arrival of the Celtic people in these regions.

There has been much speculation of who, how and when they were built. Even more importantly, people have pondered why Stonehenge was built. There have been many theories regarding Stonehenge's purpose.

The construction of Stonehenge began perhaps around 3100 BC, by the Neolithic people living in the area. The building continued in two other stages, about 2100 BC and later at 2000 BC. It was finally completed in c. 1400 BC.

There are some medieval and modern scholars who think that the druids erected Stonehenge or other stone structures, which is misleading and misrepresents the facts. I would like to dispel these myths about the druids and Stonehenge. Although there were many stone circles and dolmens erected throughout the British Isles and in Brittany, the monuments were actually pre-Celtic. All these structures were erected long before the Celtic people had ever arrive in these regions.

Who these pre-Celtic people were, has remained unknown, but they belonged to Neolithic peoples during the megalithic period. Were these megalithic people actually druids? I remain dubious over the claim that the druids were not of Celtic origin, because there is no real proof.

I believe that it is a mistake to assume that one culture from one region came from one single group of people during the Neolithic period, which then spread their practice through migration to other parts of Europe. It would be safer to assume that megalithic art and monuments were created independently, at many different times and places.

We discount the possibility that the druids had all these megalithic monuments built. So the origin of druidism will probably remain just that - an unsolved mystery.